Can a super sow be a robust sow? Consequences of litter investment in purebred and crossbred sows of different parities.

The aim of this project was to study the consequences of litter investment on physical characteristics in primiparous and multiparous sows in 3 Norwegian breeds (Norsvin Duroc [ = 12], Norsvin Landrace [ = 12], and crossbreeds [Norsvin Landrace and Swedish Yorkshire { = 15}]). We predicted that the maternal sow line (Norsvin Landrace) would invest more in their litter in term of higher weight at birth, resulting in a higher litter weight of weaned piglets but with the consequence of greater loss in body condition and a higher prevalence of shoulder lesions. It was predicted that this should be more pronounced in primiparous sows than in multiparous sows. As predicted, the maternal pure line (Norsvin Landrace) had higher litter investment in terms of litter weight at birth ( = 0.003) and litter weight at weaning ( = 0.050) as well as higher total litter investment (litter weight at weaning plus weight of dead piglets [stillborn and mummified piglets and weight of piglets that died after farrowing but before weaning]; = 0.050) and suffered larger losses of body condition ( = 0.016) and had a higher prevalence of shoulder lesions ( = 0.008) during lactation than other breeds. Moreover, only in Norsvin Landrace was development of shoulder lesions related to inadequate feed consumption ( = 0.006). This has become a major welfare concern of modern pig breeding. Although primiparous and multiparous sows had similar litter sizes, primiparous sows had lower litter investment in terms of litter weight at birth ( = 0.032) and litter weight at weaning ( = 0.007) as well as total litter investment ( = 0.008). Primiparous sows suffered greater losses in body condition ( = 0.012) and developed more shoulder lesions ( = 0.026) due to lower total feed consumption ( < 0.001) during lactation than multiparous sows. Especially in the highly productive maternal line (Norsvin Landrace), development of shoulder lesions during the lactation period was more pronounced in primiparous sows than in multiparous sows ( < 0.001). The selection program has shifted the balance to greater investments in earlier life, when sows still need resources for their own growth and development. This has resulted in a larger number of weaned piglets but at a higher sow welfare cost in terms of higher losses in body condition and a higher prevalence of shoulder lesions. Our results pinpoint the importance of improving the balance between economic traits and traits that improve welfare and longevity of the sows.

Early immune responses in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) after immunization with PLGA nanoparticles loaded with a model antigen and ß-glucan.

Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) of poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) possess adjuvant properties. To date, there are few studies exploring their application as antigen carriers for vaccination of fish. This study presents a preclinical assessment of the early innate and adaptive immune responses in Atlantic salmon following immunization with PLGA NPs. A model antigen (TNP-LPH) and an immunostimulant (ß-glucan) were entrapped in NPs of 300-400nm either alone or in combination. Both the antigen and the ß-glucan were efficiently entrapped (>50%) in particles and an antigen release study indicated particle stability up to 50 days at 8°C. Spleen and head kidney were analyzed for pro-inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-8, C3a) and T cell cytokines, effector molecules and transcription factors (IFN-γ, T-bet, GATA-3, granzyme A, IL-10, Foxp3) at mRNA transcription levels 2, 4 and 8 days post i.p. immunization. NPs alone were able to moderately up-regulate pro-inflammatory immune responses. Addition of immunogenic cargo, either an antigen or ß-glucan generally increased the gene expression of pro-inflammatory markers, while administering both resulted in the highest gene expression. These findings were also reflected by concurrently increased levels of IL-10. Comparing the treatment groups injected with antigen and ß-glucan co-administered either in NPs or FCA demonstrated that the magnitude of the acute pro-inflammatory responses was equal between the treatments or highest in the NP injected group. Although elevated expression of granzyme A in the NP injected groups (carrying antigen and/or ß-glucan) was observed, PLGA NPs were unable to induce T cell differentiation on mRNA gene expression levels, as increased levels of the indicating cytokines and transcriptions factors failed to occur. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that PLGA NPs have potential as an adjuvant in salmon vaccines as they enhance the early pro-inflammatory responses to immunization.

The effect of removing animals for slaughter on the behaviour of the remaining male and female pigs in the pen.

The study was performed to investigate changes in the behaviour of male and female pigs when one or more pigs were removed from the pen and sent to slaughter. Twelve pens were included, half of them housed six female pigs each, while the other half housed six male pigs each. Skin lesions and behaviour were recorded on two occasions, four days before and two days after one or more animals per pen were sent to slaughter. On the first occasion the male pigs fought on average about twice as often as the females (2.6 vs. 1.0 per animal per hour) and had twice as many skin lesions (6.7 vs. 3.2). On the second occasion, the frequency of fighting among both males (6.8) and females (1.8) had increased, however, more in males than in females. The number of skin lesions was not significantly higher on the second occasion. In the male group there was also a tendency towards increased mounting on the second occasion (from 2.3 to 3.3 per animal per hour). The study shows that the very common practice of slaughtering pigs from one pen over more than one occasion results in an increase in unwanted behaviour. The effect is more pronounced in groups of entire male pigs than in groups of females.

Practice on castration of piglets in Europe.

PIGCAS (Attitudes, practices and state of the art regarding piglet castration in Europe) is to our knowledge the first project that has focused on castration practice across European countries (European Union minus Bulgaria, Malta and Romania, plus Norway and Switzerland). About 250 million pigs are slaughtered in Europe each year. Of the 125 million male pigs, approximately 20% are left entire, less than 3% are castrated with anaesthesia and the rest is castrated without anaesthesia. The study identified large variations in castration procedures, both within and between countries. In females, castration is very rare, but is practiced without anaesthesia in special breeds/production systems in some of the southern countries.

Testicular germ cell development in relation to 5alpha-androstenone levels in pubertal entire male pigs.

Androstenone is a 16-androstene steroid pheromone produced in the Leydig cells in the testis, and considered to be one of the major compounds responsible for boar taint. In entire male pigs, progress of sexual maturation has been related to an increase in androstenone levels in fat. Onset of puberty and subsequent reproductive function involves genetic factors affected by the internal and external environment. In this study entire male cross-bred pigs were housed under two different light regimens in order to manipulate the onset of puberty. DNA flow cytometry (FCM) was used to study spermatogenesis and monitor the proportions of haploid (1n), diploid (2n), and tetraploid (4n) testicular cells, with conventional histological evaluation used as the reference technique. Agreement between these two methods was found to be good. The best fit model explained 34% of the variation in the androstenone concentrations. Sexual maturation in boars of 125-146 days of age, as assessed by DNA FCM, was not significantly associated with the variation in androstenone concentrations in adipose tissue when various independent variables (breed, age, light strategy, skatole concentrations in fat, and length of the bulbourethralis glands) were included in this model. These findings support the suggestion that selection against androstenone may be an option in the breeding of entire male pigs.

Surveyed attitudes, perceptions and practices in Norway regarding the use of local anaesthesia in piglet castration.

The last two years piglet castration in Norway has been performed by veterinarians and with the use of anaesthesia. In order to evaluate this new policy, veterinarians and pig producers were asked to fill out a questionnaire regarding their experiences with the new castration practices. The answers showed that the piglets were most often castrated using a combination of subcutaneous and intratesticular administration of lidocaine with adrenaline at an average age of 10 days. The effect of the anaesthesia was regarded as good by 54% of the veterinarians and 19% of the producers. Post-operative complications were rare. The overall evaluation showed that two-thirds of the veterinarians, but only one-third of the pig producers were satisfied or very satisfied with the implemented policy. However, while two-thirds of the pig producer had a negative attitude to the policy before it was implemented, only one-third were dissatisfied after two years experience.

Factors affecting the herd level of antibodies against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in dairy cattle.

A case-control study was made of Norwegian dairy herds with high and low herd levels of antibodies against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. A high proportion of the herds had a considerable number of seropositive cows, and environmental and management factors were examined for possible associations with the high serological levels of antibodies. The most important appeared to be: geographical location, red deer (Cervus elaphus) gaining access to the pastures for cattle, the observation of wild birds in the feed storage, and herds sharing common pasture with other herds of cattle. However, diagnostic tests showed that none of the animals in the case herds was infected with M a paratuberculosis.

The effect of static traction and orthoses in the treatment of knee contractures in preschool children with juvenile chronic arthritis: a single-subject design.

OBJECTIVE: External applied devices are sometimes used in the treatment of persistent knee contractures in juvenile chronic arthritis (JCA). This study examined the effect of static night traction and orthoses on passive and active extension range of motion (ROM) in preschool children with JCA. METHOD: A single-subject design was used, comparing the outcome of periods without intervention (A) with that of periods with intervention in the form of traction and orthoses (B). Five patients, 3 girls and 2 boys, participated. Active and passive extension ROM was measured weekly. The data were examined by visual inspection of trend, slope, and mean level in each period. RESULTS: Greater improvement in both active and passive extension ROM was seen in the B periods than in the A periods. The intervention was not observed to have any negative effects on the children. CONCLUSION: Static night traction may be a useful supplement to physiotherapy and medication to reduce knee flexion contractures in small children with JCA. The effect of the orthoses was difficult to evaluate because they were used for an insufficient time.

Detection of viral antigen in placenta and fetus of cattle acutely infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus.

The reproductive organs and fetuses of seven Norwegian Red heifers were investigated for the presence of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) antigen during the time of initial transplacental transmission of the virus. The heifers were inoculated with a noncytopathogenic BVDV at day 85/86 of gestation and were slaughtered at day 7, 10, 14, 18, or 22 postinoculation (pi). Cryostat sections of uterus, ovaries, placentomes, intercotyledonary fetal membranes, and fetal organs were examined using immunohistochemical techniques. A double immunofluorescence technique was used to identify cells that showed staining with antibodies against the leukocyte common antigen CD45 or the intermediate filament vimentin and BVDV antigens. The earliest stage of infection at which BVDV antigen could be detected in the fetuses was 14 days pi. At this stage, BVDV antigen was detected in cells of mesenchymal origin in the lungs and in large cells that morphologically resembled immature megakaryocytes in the liver. In the intercotyledonary fetal membranes and in the placentomes, BVDV antigen was not detected until 18 and 22 days pi, respectively. BVDV antigen was not detected in maternal tissue from any of the heifers. The present results indicate that fetal infection with BVDV can take place without preceding or simultaneous high concentrations of BVDV in uterus or placenta of acutely infected heifers.

Level and duration of serum antibodies in cattle infected experimentally and naturally with bovine virus diarrhoea virus.

Neutralising serum antibodies against bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) were monitored for three years in 35 cattle that were infected with the virus as calves; 24 of the calves were inoculated intramuscularly or intranasally, and 11 contracted the infection naturally. All the experimentally infected calves seroconverted within 14 to 28 days after inoculation, and all the animals still had high serum levels of antibodies to BVDV three years after infection. Determinations of antibody levels in milk and blood samples excluded the possibility that the calves had been reinfected with BVDV during the study.

Distribution of viral antigen in uterus, placenta and foetus of cattle persistently infected with bovine virus diarrhoea virus.

The tissue distribution and cellular localisation of bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) was investigated in the uterus, placentomes, intercotyledonary foetal membranes and foetal organs of three persistently infected (PI) pregnant heifers. The uterus and ovaries of a non-pregnant PI heifer were also included in the study. Cryostat sections were examined using immunohistochemical techniques and monoclonal antibodies against BVDV. A double immunofluorescence technique was used to identify BVDV positive cells that also showed staining for either the leukocyte common antigen CD45 or the cytoskeletal filament vimentin. BVDV antigen was detected in all the organs examined, and was present in both epithelial and non-epithelial cells. In all organs many of the virus-positive cells also showed reactivity for vimentin. In the foetal liver and spleen a small, scattered population of virus-positive cells showed reactivity for CD45. A few cells showed reactivity both for BVDV antigen and for CD45 in the placentomes and intercotyledonary foetal membranes. In contrast to earlier reports, only scattered cells in the foetal part of the placentomes, the cotyledons, showed reactivity for BVDV antigen. However, in the chorion of the intercotyledonary foetal membranes, a larger proportion of the trophoblast cells showed reactivity for BVDV, especially the binuclear trophoblast cells. In the uterus, pregnancy appeared to favour virus replication, as the section from the pregnant heifers showed much stronger staining and a higher proportion of viral antigen-positive cells than sections from the non-pregnant PI heifer.

The duration of antibodies against bovine virus diarrhoea virus in bulk milk.

Fifty-eight dairy herds, suspected to be recently infected with bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) due to a rise in BVDV antibodies in bulk milk, were followed over a two-year period. In 34 (59%) of these 58 herds (Group 1), pooled milk samples from heifers or pooled blood samples from calves were negative for BVDV antibodies. In this group as many as 53 and 76% of the herds again had antibody-negative bulk milk one and two years after the positive sample, respectively. Of the remaining herds, 5 and 17% had negative samples after one and 2 years respectively. Possible explanations for the limited duration of antibodies against BVDV in bulk milk are discussed. In 65% of the herds in Group 1, animals had been purchased and introduced into the herd, or the herds had been exposed to other forms of contact representing a risk of infection with BVDV. In the remaining 35% of the herds in this group, no explanation for the rise in BVDV antibodies in the bulk milk could be found. In this study the introduction of seropositive animals into the herd, and infection inducing seroconversion in one or more animals as the only result, seem to be the most probable explanations for the rise in antibody levels observed in Group 1.

The effect of bovine virus diarrhoea virus on reproduction in recently infected Norwegian dairy herds.

A group of 32 dairy herds, recently infected with bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV), was compared with a control group consisting of 75 BVDV free herds during a 3-year-period. Variables related to reproduction were registered. Results of multiple antibody examinations in bulk milk as well as samples of milk and blood from younger animals were used to select the herds. The incidence of abortions was statistically significantly different in the 2 groups, while the number of stillbirths, weak born calves, and congenital anomalies was not. Other variables such as percentage of non return, average number of inseminations per cow and calving interval showed during the study a trend to improve in the BVDV group, while they remained stable in the control group.

Level of viral antigen in blood leucocytes from cattle acutely infected with bovine viral diarrhoea virus.

Blood samples from 24 calves undergoing experimental acute infection with a non-cytopathogenic bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) were examined for viral antigen in peripheral leucocytes with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and for presence of virus in blood plasma in a cell culture assay. With the antigen ELISA, low positive values were detected in leucocytes sampled on days 3-4 from two of eight animals inoculated intranasally, and on days 11-13 from three of 16 animals inoculated intramuscularly. From 22 of the animals, low titres of BVDV were detected in blood plasma obtained 2-9 days after inoculation. All other samples, drawn between 2 and 21 days after inoculation, were negative for viral antigen. All animals seroconverted 3-4 weeks after inoculation, some after having shown mild and transient signs of disease.

Ranitidine in the treatment of gastric, prepyloric and duodenal ulcer--a controlled prospective double-blind trial.

Fifty adult outpatients with endoscopically proven gastric, prepyloric or duodenal ulcers were included in a prospective, randomised double-blind trial of ranitidine (40 mg X 3 daily and 80 mg at bedtime) versus placebo. After 4 weeks the ulcers had healed in 21 of 25 patients receiving ranitidine compared with 7 of 23 in patients receiving placebo (p less than 0.001). The ranitidine treated patients had fewer days of pain (p less than 0.001) and lower consumption of antacids (p less than 0.01) than placebo patients. Patients whose ulcers were not healed after 4 weeks went into an open 4 weeks trial with ranitidine. After the second 4 week period there were still 5 unhealed ulcers, all located in the prepyloric region. No serious side effects or haematological or biochemical abnormalities were observed. It is concluded that ranitidine is a very potent and safe ulcer healing substance. Patients with prepyloric ulcers may need a higher dose or a longer period of treatment.